Year: 2019

Detailed IPv4 packet header diagram with labeled fields: Version, TTL, Protocol, Checksum, and Source/Destination IP addresses.
CCNA June 6, 2019

Mastering the IPv4 Packet Header: Insights for 2025 Networks

In 2025, the IPv4 packet header remains widely used despite IPv6 adoption, supporting legacy systems and critical applications like industrial IoT, where its compact structure is advantageous in constrained environments. The network layer converts transport layer segments into packets, with the IPv4 packet encapsulating the data unit and adding header information. In 2025, this process...
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connectionless
CCNA June 6, 2019

Mastering IP’s Connectionless Protocol: Insights for 2025 Networks

Connectionless No connection is established with the destination before sending data packets, defining a communication model where packets are sent without ensuring the recipient’s availability. This mirrors sending a letter without prior notice. In 2025, this efficiency supports real-time data in IoT, though retransmissions may increase with network congestion. Connectionless data communications work on the...
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OSI model diagram highlighting the network layer, with routers directing data packets and examples of IPv4/IPv6 addresses.
CCNA June 6, 2019

Mastering the Network Layer: Functions and Evolution in 2025

The primary function of the network layer is to deliver packets from source to destination across multiple networks. It also specifies the packet structure and processing used to carry the data from one host to another. The layer routes the packet through different channels to the other end and acts as a network controller. Analogy...
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Cisco switch ports with Ethernet cables, illustrating Auto-MDIX automatic cable detection for straight-through and crossover connections.
CCNA June 5, 2019

What is Auto-MDIX Cisco? – Everything to Know

Auto-MDIX (Automatic Medium-Dependent Interface Crossover) is a feature supported on Cisco switches and routers that automatically detects and configures the required cable type (straight-through or crossover) for Ethernet connections. This eliminates the need for network administrators to select or use specific cables when connecting devices manually. Historical Context In the past, connecting two network devices...
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Cisco switch port configuration diagram showing duplex and speed settings for Ethernet ports.
CCNA June 5, 2019

Mastering Duplex and Speed Settings for Ethernet Switches in 2025

Duplex and Speed settings are the most basic settings for each switch port. By default, Cisco switches will auto-negotiate the speed and duplex settings. However, the switch port and connected devices, such as a computer or another switch, can mismatch the duplex and speed settings. Two types of duplex settings are used for communications on an...
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Close-up of Ethernet switch ports with data packets flowing, illustrating memory buffering concepts
CCNA June 5, 2019

Mastering Ethernet Switch Memory Buffering: Techniques for 2025 Networks

Ethernet switches employ memory buffering to manage data traffic efficiently, ensuring frames (data units) are temporarily stored when destination ports face congestion. Effective buffering is crucial to prevent frame loss, which can degrade network performance, increase latency, and trigger retransmissions, ultimately impacting user experience and reliability. This article explores buffering methods, their evolution, and their...
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Diagram illustrating the fundamentals of network switching and its components.
CCNA June 5, 2019

Switching Fundamentals – Everything to Know

An Ethernet switch is a Layer 2 device. Therefore, the switch uses MAC addresses for switching decisions. It is unaware of the protocol being carried in the data portion of the frame, such as an IPv4 packet. The Ethernet hub repeats bits out of all ports except the incoming port, but an Ethernet switch consults...
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Image illustrating the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) in network communication.
CCNA June 4, 2019

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The source host uses Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to determine the destination MAC address. Although the destination MAC address can be a unicast, broadcast, or multicast, the source MAC address must always be unicast. Every device with an IP address on a network also has an Ethernet MAC address. When a device sends an Ethernet...
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Diagram illustrating unicast, multicast, and broadcast addresses in network communication.
CCNA June 4, 2019

Mastering Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses in 2025

In Ethernet, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses always describe a group of recipients. However, the unicast explains communication where data is sent from one point to another. Unicast Address A unicast address means a packet has been sent from a single source to a specific destination. All Ethernet and IP networks support unicast transmission. A unicast...
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Diagram illustrating the structure and function of a MAC address
CCNA June 4, 2019

Understanding MAC Addresses: Structure, Importance, and How to Find Them in 2025

A media access control address, or a device’s MAC address, is a worldwide unique identifier assigned to a network interface controller. It is also known as “hardware address” or “physical address” and is very important for communication within network segments. Most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth, use a Media Access Control address for within-network...
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