In the gated residential area where your grandparents reside, certain regulations govern the entry and exit procedures. To gain access to the community, the security personnel will only raise the gate once your presence has been verified against an authorized visitor list. Similarly, when it comes to network traffic traversing an interface set up with an access control list (ACL), there are provisions for permitting or denying traffic. How can you go about configuring these ACLs? Furthermore, what steps should you take if they are not functioning as intended or need adjustments for other reasons? Begin exploring this module to acquire a deeper understanding.

Introduction to Access Control Lists

Routers play a critical role in making routing decisions based on information contained in the packet header. When traffic enters a router interface, the routing decision is primarily guided by the data within the routing table. Specifically, the router conducts a comparison between the destination IP address and the routes stored in the routing table to identify the most suitable match. Subsequently, the packet is forwarded based on the determined best-match route. This same mechanism can be harnessed for the purpose of traffic filtration through the utilization of an access control list (ACL).

An ACL is essentially a series of IOS (Internetwork Operating System) commands designed to filter packets by examining details within the packet header. By default, a router does not have any ACLs in place. However, when an ACL is applied to a specific interface, the router assumes an additional responsibility: it evaluates all incoming network packets as they traverse the interface to ascertain whether a packet can be forwarded.

The structure of an ACL consists of a sequential list of statements, known as access control entries (ACEs). It is worth noting that ACEs are often referred to as ACL statements.

When network traffic passes through an interface configured with an ACL, the router assesses the information contained within each packet against the ACEs, one after the other in sequence. This process, known as packet filtering, aims to determine if the packet aligns with any of the ACEs.

Routers frequently employ ACLs for various tasks, relying on them to identify specific types of traffic. The table below provides some examples of these tasks:

1. Traffic Permitting – Permitting certain traffic types while denying others.
2. Security Measures – Enhancing network security by controlling access.
3. Quality of Service (QoS) – Prioritizing traffic based on service requirements.
4. Traffic Accounting – Keeping track of data usage for billing or monitoring.
5. Network Address Translation (NAT) – Managing the translation of private IP addresses to a public one for internet access.

By skillfully configuring ACLs, network administrators can effectively manage and secure their network traffic to meet specific operational requirements.

Packet Filtering

Packet filtering serves as a mechanism for managing network access by scrutinizing incoming and/or outgoing packets and making decisions about whether to allow or discard them according to predefined criteria. This process of packet filtering can be implemented at either Layer 3 or Layer 4 of the network protocol stack, as illustrated in the diagram.

Numbered and Named ACLs

Named ACLs

ACLs are categorized into two main types: standard and extended. Standard ACLs are numbered from 1 to 99 or from 1300 to 1999, while extended ACLs are numbered from 100 to 199 or from 2000 to 2699. This categorization of ACLs are following:-

• 1-99       IP standard access list
• 100-199    IP extended access list
• 1100-1199  Extended 48-bit MAC address access list
• 1300-1999  IP standard access list (expanded range)
• 200-299    Protocol type-code access list
• 2000-2699  IP extended access list (expanded range)
• 700-799    48-bit MAC address access list
• rate-limit Simple rate-limit specific access list
• template   Enable IP template acls

Named ACLs

Using named ACLs is the recommended approach when configuring Access Control Lists (ACLs). With named ACLs, you can provide descriptive names that convey the purpose of the ACL, which makes it easier to understand and manage. For instance, naming an extended ACL “FTP-FILTER” is much more informative than using a numeric identifier like ACL 100.

To create a named ACL, you can use the “ip access-list” global configuration command. This allows you to define ACLs with meaningful names, enhancing clarity and organization in your network configuration, as shown in the following example.

• permit tcp 192.168.10.0 0.0.0.255 any eq ftp
• permit tcp 192.168.10.0 0.0.0.255 any eq ftp-data

Here is a summary of the rules to adhere to when working with named ACLs:

1. Assign a Descriptive Name: Choose a name that clearly identifies the purpose of the ACL, making it easy to understand its role in network security or traffic management.
2. Alphanumeric Characters: Use only alphanumeric characters (letters and numbers) in the ACL name. Avoid using spaces or punctuation marks.
3. Consider Uppercase: While not mandatory, it’s often recommended to write the name in CAPITAL LETTERS for consistency and visibility in network configurations.
4. Dynamic Editing: Keep in mind that you can add or remove entries within the ACL as needed, allowing for flexibility in managing access control based on changing network requirements.

ACL Operation

Access Control Lists (ACLs) serve as a set of rules that provide additional control over packets as they interact with a router. ACLs can be configured to apply to inbound and outbound traffic, as depicted in the figure.

The figure illustrates inbound and outbound traffic on a router. In the center is a router, and on the left, there’s an orange arrow pointing toward the router, accompanied by the label “Inbound ACL.” On the right, another orange arrow starts at the router and points away, accompanied by the label “Outbound ACL.”

Important Notes: ACLs do not impact packets originating from the router itself.

Inbound ACLs are responsible for filtering packets before they are routed to the outbound interface. This approach is efficient because it prevents unnecessary routing lookups if a packet is to be discarded. If the ACL permits the packet, it proceeds to the routing process. Inbound ACLs are ideal when you need to examine packets originating exclusively from the network attached to an inbound interface.

Outbound ACLs, on the other hand, filter packets after they have been routed, irrespective of the inbound interface. Incoming packets are first routed to the outbound interface and then subjected to the outbound ACL. Outbound ACLs are suitable when the same filtering criteria must be applied to packets arriving from multiple inbound interfaces before exiting via the same outbound interface.

When an ACL is applied to an interface, it follows a specific sequence of operations. For instance, here are the steps involved when traffic enters a router interface with an inbound standard IPv4 ACL configured:

1. The router extracts the source IPv4 address from the packet header.
2. The router commences at the top of the ACL, comparing the source IPv4 address to each Access Control Entry (ACE) in a sequential manner.
3. When a match is identified, the router executes the specified action (permit or deny), and the remaining ACEs in the ACL are not examined.
4. If the source IPv4 address doesn’t match any ACE in the ACL, the packet is discarded because there is an implicit deny ACE that applies to all ACLs by default.
5. The final ACE statement in an ACL is always an implicit deny, blocking all traffic. This statement is automatically included at the end of every ACL, even though it isn’t displayed in the configuration.

Note: An ACL must contain at least one permit statement; otherwise, all traffic will be denied due to the implicit deny ACE statement.

Zero Trust Security

Zero trust represents a comprehensive strategy for securing access across various domains such as networks, applications, and environments. This method ensures the protection of access rights for users, end-user devices, APIs, IoT devices, microservices, containers, and more. It safeguards an organization’s workforce, workloads, and workplace.

The fundamental principle underlying the zero-trust approach is “never trust, always verify.” It implies that every time someone or something requests access to assets, they should be treated as untrusted until their identity is verified. The zero-trust security framework is designed to prevent unauthorized access, contain breaches, and minimize the potential for attackers to move laterally within a network.

Traditionally, the network perimeter, also known as the edge, served as the dividing line between trusted and untrusted areas. However, in the context of the zero-trust approach, any point where access control decisions are made should be regarded as a potential perimeter.

This means that even if a user or entity has previously gained access through one access control point, they are not automatically trusted to access other areas or resources unless they authenticate themselves. In certain situations, users may need to authenticate multiple times and use different methods to access different layers of the network. There are three pillars of zero trust security which are workforce, workloads, and workplace.

Zero Trust for the workforce

This aspect involves individuals, including employees, contractors, partners, and vendors, who utilize their personal or company-managed devices to access work-related applications. This facet of security guarantees that only authorized users and trusted devices can access applications, irrespective of their location

Zero Trust for the workload

This component addresses applications operating in cloud environments, data centers, and various virtualized settings, all of which communicate with each other. Its primary emphasis is on ensuring secure access when an API, microservice, or container needs to interact with a database within an application.

Zero Trust for the Workplace

This aspect prioritizes ensuring secure access for all types of devices, including those within the Internet of Things (IoT), that establish connections with enterprise networks. These devices encompass user endpoints, physical and virtual servers, printers, cameras, HVAC systems, kiosks, infusion pumps, industrial control systems, and various others.

Access Control Models

To safeguard its network resources, information systems, and information, an organization needs to establish effective access controls. To gain insight into potential vulnerabilities and threats, a security analyst should grasp the fundamentals of various access control models, enabling them to comprehend how attackers may attempt to circumvent these security measures.

Discretionary Access Control (DAC)

This model, known as the least restrictive, empowers data owners to manage access to their data. In the context of DAC (Discretionary Access Control), access permissions can be defined using ACLs (Access Control Lists) or alternative approaches to indicate which users or user groups are granted access to the information.

Mandatory Access Control(MAC)

This approach enforces the most stringent access control measures and is commonly employed in military or highly critical applications. It involves assigning security-level labels to information and granting access to users based on their security clearance level.

Role-Based Access Control(RBAC)

Access determinations are rooted in an individual’s functions and duties within the organization. Various roles are granted specific security privileges, and individuals are linked to the Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) profile corresponding to their role. These roles can encompass diverse positions, job categories, or groups of job categories. This system is also referred to as a form of non-discretionary access control.

Attribute-based access control(ABAC)

ABAC permits access based on attributes related to the object (the resource being accessed), the subject (the user seeking access), and environmental factors pertaining to how the object should be accessed, such as the specific time of day.

Rule-Base Access Control(RBAC)

The network security team establishes sets of regulations or criteria linked to data or system access. These regulations can define allowed or prohibited IP addresses, particular protocols, and other related conditions. This approach is also recognized as Rule-Based Role-Based Access Control (RBAC).

Time-based Access Control (TAC)

Another access control model is the “principle of least privilege,” which advocates a restricted, necessity-based approach to bestowing user and process access privileges for particular information and tools. This principle asserts that users should only be provided with the minimal level of access essential for carrying out their job responsibilities.

A prevalent form of exploitation is known as “privilege escalation.” In this type of attack, vulnerabilities within servers or access control systems are manipulated to confer an unauthorized user or software process with higher privileges than they should rightfully possess. Once these elevated privileges are obtained, malicious actors can access sensitive data or gain control over a system.

Network Access Control (NAC) Systems

Network Access Control (NAC) systems play a crucial role in managing access to a network by enforcing an organization’s policies regarding individuals and devices seeking network access. These systems enable cybersecurity experts to oversee the users and devices connected to the network and exercise manual control over access when necessary.

NAC systems offer the following capabilities:

1. Swiftly implementing access policies tailored to various operational scenarios.
2. Identifying and profiling users and devices connected to the network to prevent potential harm from non-compliant systems infected with malicious software.
3. Facilitating secure access for network guests, often through registration portals.
4. Assessing device compliance with security policies based on user type, device type, and operating system before granting network access.
5. Addressing security incidents by either blocking, isolating, or rectifying non-compliant devices.

Given the expanded attack surface brought about by Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) and Internet of Things (IoT) networking, NAC system automation features become indispensable for maintaining precise control over network access by such devices. These NAC systems are configured to uphold organizational policies, with these policies determining whether network access is granted or denied based on various factors detected by the NAC system on devices seeking access. Without NAC systems, it would be unmanageable for cybersecurity personnel to evaluate the multitude of devices attempting to access the network.

NAC serves as a pivotal component within a zero-trust security framework, ensuring compliance with security policies for all devices and users endeavoring to access the network.

FAQs

1. What is Zero Trust Security, and what does it aim to protect? Zero Trust Security is a comprehensive strategy that aims to secure access across networks, applications, and environments. It protects access rights for various entities, including users, devices, APIs, and more. Its goal is to safeguard an organization’s workforce, workloads, and workplace.
2. What is the fundamental principle of Zero Trust Security? The fundamental principle is “never trust, always verify.” This means that every request for access, whether by a user or device, is treated as untrusted until their identity is verified.
3. How does Zero Trust Security help prevent unauthorized access and contain breaches? Zero Trust Security prevents unauthorized access by requiring verification for every access request. It also minimizes lateral movement within a network, making it harder for attackers to spread once inside.
4. In Zero Trust Security, what is the new perspective on the network perimeter? In the Zero Trust approach, any point where access control decisions are made is considered a potential perimeter. This means that even if access has been granted at one point, it’s not automatically trusted for other areas or resources.
5. What are the three pillars of Zero Trust Security, and what do they encompass? The three pillars are:
   • Zero Trust for the Workforce: Ensures authorized users and trusted devices can access applications, regardless of their location.
   • Zero Trust for the workload: Focuses on securing access for applications in various environments.
   • Zero Trust for the workplace: Prioritizes secure access for all types of devices, including IoT devices, connecting to enterprise networks.

6. What is Discretionary Access Control (DAC), and how does it work?DAC empowers data owners to control access to their data, often using Access Control Lists (ACLs) or alternative methods to specify which users or user groups have access.
7. What is Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and where is it commonly used?MAC enforces strict access control based on security labels assigned to information. It’s commonly used in military or highly critical applications.
8. Explain Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) and how it operates.RBAC grants access based on individuals’ roles within an organization. Users are associated with specific roles, each with its own set of security privileges.
9. What is Attribute-based Access Control (ABAC), and what factors does it consider for access decisions?ABAC permits access based on attributes related to the object, subject, and environmental factors. It considers information about the resource, user, and access context.
10. What is Time-based Access Control (TAC), and why is the “principle of least privilege” important in access control?TAC restricts access based on time, and the “principle of least privilege” advocates granting users only the minimal access needed for their job responsibilities. This minimizes the risk of privilege escalation.

11. What is the role of Network Access Control (NAC) systems in network security?NAC systems manage access to a network by enforcing an organization’s access policies for individuals and devices seeking network access.
12. What capabilities do NAC systems offer?NAC systems can swiftly implement access policies, identify and profile users and devices, facilitate secure access for guests, assess device compliance, and address security incidents.
13. Why are NAC systems important in the context of Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) and Internet of Things (IoT) networking?NAC systems are crucial for maintaining control over network access by devices in BYOD and IoT scenarios, as they help ensure compliance with security policies.
14. How do NAC systems integrate with a Zero Trust Security framework?NAC serves as a pivotal component in a Zero Trust Security framework by ensuring compliance with security policies for all devices and users attempting to access the network, aligning with the “never trust, always verify” principle.

Physical access controls refer to tangible measures put in place to obstruct any direct physical interaction with systems. The primary objective is to hinder unauthorized individuals from obtaining physical entry to facilities, machinery, and other assets within an organization. To illustrate, physical access control governs who is permitted to enter or exit, specifies the locations at which entry or exit is allowed, and dictates the times at which entry or exit is granted.

Here are some examples of physical access controls:

• Security personnel for facility monitoring
• Perimeter barriers such as fencing for protection
• Motion sensors designed to identify moving objects
• Locks for laptops to secure portable equipment
• Secured doors to prohibit unauthorized entry
• Access cards (swipe cards) for entry into restricted zones
• Trained guard dogs for facility protection
• Video surveillance cameras for continuous facility monitoring and image recording
• Entry systems employing a mantrap-style approach to control the flow of individuals into secure areas and prevent unwanted access
• Intrusion alarms for detecting unauthorized entry

Logical Access Controls

Logical access controls encompass both hardware and software solutions employed to oversee access to resources and computer systems. These technology-driven solutions encompass the tools and protocols utilized by computer systems to handle processes such as identification, authentication, authorization, and accountability.

Logical access control examples include:

• Encryption involves taking regular text and transforming it into coded text.
• Smart cards contain a tiny microchip inside them.
• Passwords are secure combinations of characters.
• Biometrics refers to physical traits of users.
• Access control lists (ACLs) specify the kinds of data that can pass through a network.
• Protocols are a set of rules governing how devices exchange data.
• Firewalls block unwanted network traffic.
• Routers link together at least two networks.
• Intrusion detection systems keep an eye on a network for suspicious activities.
• Clipping levels are predetermined limits for errors before they raise a warning.

Administrative Access Controls

Administrative access controls consist of the guidelines and protocols established by organizations to effectively carry out and uphold measures for preventing unauthorized access in all aspects.

Administrative controls focus on personnel and business practices.

Policies

• Policies are declarations of an organization’s intentions.
• Procedures encompass the specific steps necessary to carry out a task.
• Hiring practices outline an organization’s process for identifying qualified employees.
• Background checks involve employee screening, including verification of past employment, examination of credit history, and assessment of criminal history.
• Data classification involves categorizing data according to its level of sensitivity.
• Security training provides employees with education regarding an organization’s security policies.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job.

Procedures

• Policies are declarations of an organization’s objectives.
• Procedures entail the specific, in-depth actions necessary to complete a task.
• Hiring practices outline the measures an organization follows to locate competent employees.
• Background checks constitute a form of employee assessment, encompassing verification of prior employment, scrutiny of credit history, and examination of criminal records.
• Data classification involves the organization of data according to its level of confidentiality.
• Security training imparts knowledge to employees about an organization’s security protocols.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.
•  

Hiring Practices

• Policies represent expressions of an organization’s intentions.
• Procedures encompass the intricate steps necessary to carry out a task.
• Hiring practices delineate the processes an organization follows to identify suitable candidates.
• Background checks constitute a form of employee assessment, encompassing past employment verification, credit history, and criminal record examination.
• Data classification involves the categorization of data according to its level of sensitivity.
• Security training imparts knowledge to employees regarding an organization’s security guidelines.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.

Background Checks

• Policies are declarations of an organization’s objectives.
• Procedures outline the specific, intricate steps necessary to complete an activity.
• Hiring practices encompass the processes an organization employs to locate skilled employees.
• Background checks constitute a form of employee assessment, encompassing past employment verification, credit history, and criminal history.
• Data classification involves organizing data based on its level of sensitivity.
• Security training imparts knowledge to employees regarding an organization’s security guidelines.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.

Data Classification

• Policies represent expressions of an organization’s intentions.
• Procedures encompass the specific, intricate steps needed to carry out an activity.
• Hiring practices delineate the methods an organization employs to identify qualified employees.
• Background checks involve employee screenings that include verification of past employment, credit history, and criminal records.
• Data classification involves the categorization of data based on its level of sensitivity.
• Security training imparts knowledge to employees about an organization’s security protocols.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.
  

Security Training

• Policies represent an organization’s intentions as stated.
• Procedures encompass the specific, comprehensive steps necessary for performing a task.
• Hiring practices lay out the processes through which an organization identifies qualified employees.
• Background checks involve screening employees, including verifying past employment, reviewing credit history, and examining criminal records.
• Data classification involves organizing data according to its level of sensitivity.
• Security training provides employees with knowledge about an organization’s security policies.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.

Review

• Policies serve as declarations of an organization’s objectives.
• Procedures encompass the specific, intricate steps needed to execute an activity.
• Hiring practices outline the processes an organization follows to identify competent employees.
• Background checks constitute a form of employee screening, covering past employment verification, credit history, and criminal history.
• Data classification involves the categorization of data according to its level of sensitivity.
• Security training imparts knowledge to employees regarding an organization’s security guidelines.
• Reviews assess an employee’s performance in their job role.

Administrative Access Controls in Detail

Let’s delve deeper into the specifics of administrative access controls. The concept of administrative access controls revolves around three fundamental security services: authentication, authorization, and accounting, often referred to as AAA. These services form the core framework for managing access, effectively thwarting any unauthorized entry into a computer, network, database, or other data resources.

Authentication

The initial “A” in AAA stands for authentication, a process that validates the identity of each user to prevent unauthorized access. Users establish their identity using a username or ID, and they are also required to confirm their identity by providing one of the following:

• Something they remember (like a password)
• Something they possess (such as a token or card)
• Something inherent to them (such as a fingerprint)

With the rise of two-factor authentication, which is now more commonly practiced, the system mandates the use of a combination of two of the aforementioned methods instead of relying on just one to confirm an individual’s identity.

Authorization

Authorization services are responsible for establishing which resources users are allowed to access and what actions they can perform. In certain systems, this is achieved through the utilization of an access control list (ACL). An ACL assesses whether a user possesses specific access privileges after their authentication. It’s important to note that simply logging onto the corporate network does not automatically grant permission for activities like using a high-speed color printer.

Authorization can also dictate when a user is granted access to a particular resource. For instance, employees may have access to a sales database during their work hours, but the system restricts access after regular working hours.

Accounting

Unrelated to financial accounting, within the realm of AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting), accounting focuses on monitoring user activities, which includes tracking their actions, the duration of resource access, and any alterations they make.

For instance, consider a bank that meticulously records every customer account. An audit of this system can unveil the timing and amounts of all transactions, as well as the employee or system responsible for carrying out these transactions. Cybersecurity accounting services operate in a similar fashion. The system logs each data transaction and generates audit reports. System administrators have the capability to establish computer policies to facilitate system auditing.

The AAA concept can be likened to using a credit card. Much like how a credit card specifies who can utilize it, sets spending limits for the user, and documents the items or services acquired, AAA systems encompass the identification of users, the control of their actions, and the recording of their activities.

What Is Identification?

Identification is the process that upholds the rules set forth by the authorization policy. Whenever there’s a request for access to a resource, the access controls step in to decide whether access should be granted or denied.

A distinct identifier plays a crucial role in ensuring the correct association between authorized activities and individuals. The most common means of identifying a user is through a username, which can take the form of an alphanumeric combination, a personal identification number (PIN), a smart card, or a biometric method such as fingerprint recognition, retina scanning, or voice recognition.

The presence of a unique identifier guarantees that the system can individually recognize each user, thus enabling authorized users to carry out appropriate actions on specific resources.

Federated Identity Management

Federated identity management involves multiple enterprises enabling their users to utilize the same identification credentials to access the networks of all enterprises within the group. However, this practice broadens the scope and raises the likelihood of a cascading effect in the event of an attack.

In a broader sense, federated identity links an individual’s electronic identity across distinct identity management systems, enabling them to access various websites using the same social login credentials.

The primary objective of federated identity management is to automatically share identity information across different domains. For users, this translates to a single sign-on experience on the web.

It is essential for organizations to carefully examine the information shared with their partners, even if they belong to the same corporate group. Sharing sensitive data like social security numbers, names, and addresses could potentially provide identity thieves with an opportunity to commit fraud. The most common method for safeguarding federated identity is to associate login capabilities with an authorized device.

Authentication Methods

As previously mentioned, users establish their identity through a username or ID. Additionally, users are required to confirm their identity by furnishing one of the following:

What you know

Passwords, passphrases, or PINs represent examples of information known to the user, with passwords being the most widely used method for authentication.

Terms like passphrase, passcode, passkey, and PIN are all collectively referred to as passwords. A password is essentially a sequence of characters used to confirm a user’s identity. However, if this character sequence is related to the user in an obvious way, such as using their name, birthdate, or address, it becomes easier for cybercriminals to guess.

Numerous sources recommend that a password should consist of at least eight characters. Users should strike a balance between creating a password that is long enough for security but not so long that it becomes difficult to remember. Additionally, it’s essential for passwords to incorporate a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and special characters.

To enhance security, users should employ different passwords for various systems. This precaution is crucial because if a cybercriminal manages to crack one password, they would gain access to all of the user’s accounts. Utilizing a password manager can assist in generating and managing strong passwords, eliminating the need to remember each one individually.

What You have

Smart cards and security key fobs serve as examples of physical items that users possess and can use for authentication purposes.

A smart card is a compact plastic card, roughly the size of a credit card, containing a small embedded chip. This chip functions as an intelligent data carrier, capable of processing, storing, and safeguarding data. Smart cards hold sensitive information like bank account numbers, personal identification, medical records, and digital signatures. They employ encryption to secure data while also providing a means for authentication.

On the other hand, a security key fob is a small device that can be easily attached to a keyring. Security key fobs are typically employed for two-factor authentication (2FA), which is notably more secure than relying solely on a username and password combination.

For instance, let’s consider a scenario where you wish to access your e-banking account, which utilizes two-factor authentication. First, you enter your username (the first identification step), followed by your password, serving as the initial authentication factor. Then, you require a second factor, as it’s 2FA. To complete this, you input a PIN or insert your smart card into the security key fob, which then displays a number. By demonstrating that you possess this device, which was assigned to you, this number serves as the second factor. You subsequently enter this number to log in to your e-banking account, as illustrated in this example.

What You are

Biometrics refers to distinctive physical traits like fingerprints, retinas, or voices that serve as unique identifiers for individuals. Biometric security involves comparing these physical characteristics to stored profiles in order to verify users’ identities. In this context, a profile is a data file containing recognized attributes of an individual. If a user’s characteristics align with the stored data, the system grants them access. A fingerprint reader is a widely used biometric device for this purpose.

There are two types of biometric identifiers:

• Physiological characteristics — fingerprints, DNA, face, hands, the retina or ear features.
• Behavioral characteristics —patterns of behavior such as gestures, voice, gait or typing rhythm.

Biometrics is gaining growing popularity in various fields, including public security systems, consumer electronics, and point-of-sale applications. To implement biometrics, you typically need a reader or scanning device, software that transforms scanned data into digital format, and a database containing biometric data for comparison.

Multi-Factor Authentication

As mentioned earlier, multi-factor authentication involves using at least two verification methods, such as a password and a physical item like a security key fob. It can be enhanced further by including a biometric factor, such as a fingerprint scan.

Multi-factor authentication significantly reduces the risk of online identity theft because merely knowing a password will not grant cybercriminals access to a user’s account.

For instance, consider an online banking website that requires both a password and a one-time PIN received on the user’s smartphone. In this scenario, the password serves as the first factor, while the temporary PIN serves as the second factor, confirming the user’s access to their registered phone.

Another straightforward example of multi-factor authentication is cash withdrawal from an ATM, where the user must possess the bank card and know the associated PIN before the ATM dispenses cash.

It’s important to note that two-factor authentication (2FA) is a specific form of multi-factor authentication that involves precisely two factors. However, these terms are often used interchangeably.

This article centers on the management of cybersecurity operations, encompassing activities such as designing, building, operating, and continuously enhancing an organization’s overall security capacity. The initial line of defense revolves around ensuring the physical security of network equipment. In parallel, there exist dedicated application security measures designed to safeguard software integrity. It’s crucial to acknowledge that network services and protocols carry their own set of vulnerabilities, necessitating specific protective measures tailored to their unique characteristics.

One effective strategy is network segmentation, which involves creating Virtual LANs (VLANS) to bolster network resilience. To enhance the security of your users’ wireless and mobile connections, it is advisable to implement one of the WPA standards. Moreover, numerous tools are available to fortify cybersecurity resilience within network design.

Furthermore, as a cybersecurity technician, it is imperative to recognize the interconnected nature of various devices, including medical equipment, automobiles, and drones.

These devices are susceptible to potential cyber threats and must be diligently shielded. Thus, it becomes paramount for every organization to establish multiple layers of security mechanisms and controls, enabling a proactive response to cybersecurity threats. This article will provide insights into the effective management and monitoring of these security layers to identify risks and safeguard against cyberattacks.

Physical Security

Physical Security is the first element of network security. It is the set of measures and safeguards put in place to protect the physical components and infrastructure of a computer network from unauthorized access, damage, theft, or any other physical threats. It involves implementing security controls and practices to ensure the physical integrity and confidentiality of network resources and data. Physical network security measures can include the use of access control systems, surveillance cameras, locks, keycards, biometric authentication, secure facility design, and other physical barriers to prevent unauthorized individuals from physically accessing network equipment, servers, data centers, and other critical network assets. The primary goal of physical network security is to mitigate risks and vulnerabilities associated with physical threats and to maintain the availability and reliability of network services.

Application Security

Application security, often abbreviated as “AppSec,” refers to the practice of safeguarding software applications and systems from security threats and vulnerabilities. It involves the implementation of protective measures and best practices throughout the software development lifecycle to prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, and malicious attacks. These measures include code reviews, penetration testing, encryption, authentication, and authorization mechanisms. The goal of application security is to ensure that software applications are robust, resilient, and resistant to exploitation, thus safeguarding sensitive data and preserving the integrity of the application and the user’s trust. Effective AppSec is essential in today’s digital landscape to counter evolving cyber threats.

Application Development

In order to uphold security throughout all phases of application development, it is crucial to adhere to a strong and comprehensive process. The development phases are following:

Developing and testing

Software undergoes its development and updates within a dedicated development environment, providing a controlled space for coding, testing, and debugging before deployment. This development environment is intentionally less restrictive and features lower security measures compared to the live environment. To keep track of alterations in the software code, version control software is employed, ensuring organized management of changes. Developers may also utilize a sandbox environment to prevent unintentional code overwrites while in the development phase.

During the testing phase, developers assess how the code interacts within the standard operating environment. Quality assurance (QA) actively identifies and reports any software defects. Addressing defects at this stage is considerably more efficient and less complex.

Staging and production

Staging environments should closely resemble the production environment used by the organization. By conducting tests within a staging environment, developers can ensure that the software operates within the specified security parameters. Once the developer has successfully tested the program’s security features, it can then be deployed into the production environment.

Provisioning and deprovisioning

Provisioning involves either creating or updating software, while deprovisioning entails its removal.

An organization can streamline software provisioning and deprovisioning by implementing a self-service portal for automation.

Security Coding Techniques

While coding applications, developers employ various methods to ensure that they have fulfilled all security prerequisites

Normalization

Normalization is a technique employed to structure data within a database, with the aim of preserving data integrity. It simplifies an input string to its most basic recognized form, ensuring that all strings possess distinct binary representations and enabling the detection of any potentially malicious input

Stored Procedure

A stored procedure comprises precompiled SQL statements stored within a database, designed to perform specific tasks. When employing a stored procedure to handle input parameters from clients with varying data inputs, you can minimize network traffic and achieve quicker results

Obfuscation and Camouflage

Developers can employ obfuscation and camouflage techniques to deter the reverse engineering of software. Obfuscation involves concealing genuine data with random characters or other data, while camouflage substitutes sensitive information with realistic yet fictitious data

Code Reuse

Code reuse involves the utilization of pre-existing software to construct new applications, resulting in time and cost savings in development. However, it’s essential to exercise caution to prevent the introduction of potential vulnerabilities.

SDKs

Third-party libraries and Software Development Kits (SDKs) serve as valuable sources of code that expedite and economize application development. However, it’s important to note that vulnerabilities within these SDKs or third-party libraries have the potential to impact numerous applications.

Input Validation

Effective control over the data input process is essential for upholding the integrity of a database. Databases frequently face attacks aimed at injecting malformed data, potentially leading to issues such as application confusion, crashes, or unintended disclosure of sensitive information to attackers. Below, you’ll find an example illustrating this scenario—an automated input attack.

In this scenario, customers utilize a web application form to subscribe to a newsletter. An automated database application promptly generates and dispatches email confirmations to these customers. However, attackers manipulate the URL links contained in these emails. These alterations can result in changes to customer usernames, email addresses, or subscription statuses when they click to confirm their subscription. Consequently, when the email returns to the host server, it receives inaccurate information, which may go unnoticed unless each email address is cross-checked against the subscription data.

Hackers can mechanize this attack, inundating the web application with a multitude of invalid subscribers in an attempt to compromise the newsletter database.

Validation Rules

A validation rule verifies that data aligns with the guidelines set by the database designer. It plays a crucial role in guaranteeing the thoroughness, correctness, and uniformity of data. The criteria considered within a validation rule encompass:

1. Size – verifies the character count in a data entry.
2. Format – ensures data adheres to a designated format.
3. Consistency – checks for code uniformity among interconnected data elements.
4. Range – confirms that data falls within a specified minimum and maximum range.
5. Check digit – includes an additional calculation for generating a check digit, enhancing error detection.

Integrity Checks

Data breaches pose a risk to the security of your devices and systems.

To safeguard data integrity, an integrity check assesses the consistency of information within a file, image, or record, ensuring it remains unaltered. This process employs a hash function to capture a data snapshot, subsequently verifying that the data remains unchanged. An example of such a hash function is a checksum.

How a checksum works

A checksum serves as a means to validate the integrity of files or strings of characters both before and after they are transferred between devices, whether it’s across a local network or the Internet. Checksums essentially convert each piece of data into a value and then calculate a total. When assessing data integrity, the receiving system replicates this process. If the two totals match, it signifies that the data is intact. Conversely, if they don’t match, it indicates that a modification has occurred somewhere during the transfer.

Hash Functions

Popular hash functions encompass MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256, and SHA-512. These employ intricate mathematical algorithms to evaluate data against a hashed value. For instance, once a file is downloaded, users can validate its integrity by comparing the hash values generated by a hash calculator with those provided by the source.

Version Control

Organizations employ version control to prevent unintended alterations by authorized users. Version control ensures that two users cannot simultaneously modify the same item, be it a file, database record, or transaction. To illustrate, when the first user opens a document, they have the authority to make changes. Meanwhile, if another individual attempts to access the document while the first user is editing it, they will only be able to view a read-only version

Backups

Reliable backups play a crucial role in preserving data integrity in case of data corruption. It’s essential for an organization to validate its backup procedures to guarantee the integrity of these backups.

Authorization

Authorization dictates access to an organization’s resources, following a ‘need-to-know’ principle. For instance, through file permissions and user access controls, only specific users with a legitimate reason can alter data. An administrator has the ability to designate a file as ‘read-only,’ meaning that any user trying to access it won’t be able to make any modifications.

Other Application Security Practices

How can you ensure the authenticity of software you’re installing or the security of your information while browsing the Internet?

Code Signing

Code signing serves as evidence that a software program is genuine.

Executable files created for installation and use on a device undergo digital signing, which confirms the identity of the author and guarantees that the software code remains unaltered since its signing.

Secure Cookies

Utilizing secure cookies safeguards the data stored in them from potential hackers.

When your client system communicates with a server, the server sends an HTTP response that directs your browser to generate one or more cookies. These cookies retain data for future requests while you navigate the website.

Web developers should employ cookies alongside HTTPS to enhance their security, ensuring that cookies are not transmitted via unencrypted HTTP.

Managing Threats to Applications

Organizations have the capability to put in place multiple strategies for handling risks within the application domain. They can get following measures

Unauthorized Access to Sever/System Room/Data Centers

Sever and System Up and Down Time

Network Operating System Vulnerability

Unauthorized Access of operating system

Data Loss

Software Development Vulnerabilities